Development of universities in the United Kingdom

In the Western world, universities had their beginnings with the training of clergy, and with a ‘medieval project’ to understand all the knowledge of the world that had its roots in Islamic scholarship centring on the works of Aristotle. Manuscripts of these works, which had first been translated from the Greek to Arabic by Islamic scholars, and then translated to Latin, and it is these translations that were brought through Europe into the United Kingdom (Burnett 1997).

The ‘Cathedral School’ was the basic unit of education throughout Europe, and their function was to train the children of the elite to become priests and, as part of this training, to read and write Latin. This was a universal language and knowledge of it was considered necessary to be thought literate in the middle ages. Priests needed to learn enough Latin to be able to recite church services, as these were all written in Latin, as well as to be able to communicate with one another regardless of location. Students were also taught the seven liberal arts (grammar, logic, rhetoric, astronomy, arithmetic, geometry and music).

Some students, however, became disillusioned with this concrete form of education, and left the cathedral schools in search of better teaching and learning. Some teachers were beginning to move away from the rote style of learning found in these schools, and encouraged their students to apply logic and critical thinking to their studies. Students would go in search of the best teachers, and the teachers would travel to where they believed there were students to be taught. Teachers were sometimes contracted to be private tutors to the wards of the wealthy, or they would teach groups of students, often in their own homes as these fledgling ‘universities’ did not have the infrastructure of modern institutions at their disposal.

For the purposes of protection, where groups of students and teachers were resident in a place where they were not natives, such as was the case in Paris, a corporation or ‘universitas’ or ‘guild of students and teachers’ would be formed which afforded the group some protection to which they were not entitled otherwise.

It is from these ‘universitas’ that ultimately the universities formed.

The development of Oxford University

According to Prest (1993 : v), the history of Oxford University can best be recognised in three distinct phases:

1. Twelfth century:

The beginnings of the university, when travelling scholars arrived and resided in the town, and began to teach. This was a period of intense struggle with the citizens of Oxford, and there was frequent violence, including in 1209 a murder perpetrated by one student, which lead to the hanging of two other students who were accused of being complicit in the incident (Southern 1984: 26). Following this event, scholars and students alike fled the town, moving to France, Bologna and Reading in England. The university was forced to close for a period of five years. The university appealed to the King for protection under the laws of corporation or ‘universitas’ as outlined above. The townspeople were forced to acquiesce, and to supply the university with all of the goods and services that it required, at prices that were within the means of students.

The fledgling university had no buildings, and students lived and studied in ‘halls’ or houses converted for the purpose by the scholars, who were all members of holy orders. These orders set up hostels in which their members could live.

As a result of the influence of the church, all of the teaching revolved around “the exposition of sound religion, as defined by the Catholic Church, and the refutation of heresy.”

2. From The Reformation:

At the Reformation in Britain (from 1532), religious establishments were disbanded, and following in the footsteps of her father, Queen Elizabeth I became the head of the Church of England. Although hesitant, Oxford University aligned itself with this new religious arrangement.

The halls that were a part of the earlier structure of the university disappeared, and the colleges that are a part of the university today were established. Oxford became more popular as a place for the children of the elite to complete their education.

In the eighteenth century, student numbers declined as the cost of undergraduate study increased and the quality of tutors was questionable. The study of law and medicine moved to London, Oxford continued to teach theology and, therefore, to train the clergy.

3. From the early nineteenth century:

In this period, Oxford was forced to reform itself due to the establishment of a new university in London, and the breakdown of connections between Church and the English State. Three Royal Commissions into the University were held, with the report from the first, published in 1852 leading to the relaxation of entry requirements, allowing people without religious persuasion to matriculate, and in 1878 the first women were allow to do so.

The later Royal Commissions, in 1871 and 1919 resulted in the governing of the university being stripped from the colleges, and by 1924 the faculties were responsible for the arrangement of their own curriculum rather than that dictated by the colleges.

Timeline to the development of the Bodleian Library

1167 Oxford University is established, growing up around St. Mary the Virgin Church. The university has no buildings. Students and tutors lived in houses nearby, where lectures are also given.

1320 ‘Old Congregation House’, the first university building, was constructed using funds bequeathed by Thomas de Cobham, Bishop of Worcester to be used for the business of the university, and to house his books. The second storey of this building became the first library at Oxford University, containing a small number of books which were chained to the shelving and desks.

1444 Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester donated his collection to the library, leading to overcrowding in the small library at Old Congregation House. It was decided to construct a new library over the Divinity School, construction for which had begun in 1424.

1488 After decades of construction delays and funding shortages, the library was finally completed and opened.

1550 During the Reformation, King Edward VI passed legislation ordering the purging of all traces of Roman Catholicism from the English Church. As a part of this process, Richard Cox, Dean of Christ Church visited Duke Humfrey’s library at Oxford University, stripping it all of its books. The university was not financially able to replace them.

1556 Duke Humphrey’s library was closed, the desks sold and the room taken over by the Faculty of Medicine.

1598 Sir Thomas Bodley donated a substantial amount of money to the university to be used to refurnish the old library. Approximately 2500 books are donated by Bodley and other donors, and Bodley proposed to provide his own staff to run the library.

1602 The new library opened on 8th November, 1602 headed by the first librarian, Thomas James. The Bodleian Library was born.

Important figures in the development of the Bodleian Library

Thomas de Cobham, Bishop of Worcester

Thomas de Cobham was born about 1265, the sixth son of John Cobham of Cobham and Cooling, Kent. His mother, whose name is unknown, was the daughter of Sir Robert Septvans. First knowledge of his career is found in Canterbury in 1284, and his educational record includes degrees in Arts (Paris), canon law (Oxford, 1291) and finally a Doctor of Theology (Cambridge, 1314). Cobham combined a career in the clergy with that of king’s clerk, acting as a diplomat for both King Edward I and II in France.

Following the death of Archbishop Winchelsey in 1313, Cobham was selected as the new Archbishop of Canterbury by the Canterbury monks; a position he accepted. However, Kind Edward II intervened, and the Pope of the time, Clement V appointed another Bishop to the position in his stead. Cobham, as an appeasement for his rejection, was appointed Bishop of Worcester in 1317.

Although his diplomatic career was halted, Cobham, in conjunction with his fellow bishops, continued to have a hand in matters of state through the remainder of his life, although he was suffering from continual medical problems.

Cobham’s contributed funds for the building of the first university building at Oxford, the Old Congregation House, built to the north of St. Mary’s Church, however he died before it was completed, in 1327. The first library at Oxford was established in an upper room of this building, and whilst some sources, such as Fleming (2004) indicate that Cobham’s personal library was also donated, Haines (2004) states that Cobham’s library was sold by his executors to pay expenses. Regardless of this, the value of his contribution to the foundation of the University cannot be underestimated.

Humphrey, 1st Duke of Gloucester

Born in 1390, Humphrey was the youngest son of King Henry IV and Mary de Bohun, and brother to King Henry V. Although knighted in 1399 after his father overthrew the throne, Humphrey did not receive any public positions until the his brother acceded the throne, becoming chamberlain of England in 1413 and receiving the title of Duke of Gloucester and Earl of Pembroke in 1414.

On his brother’s death in 1422, Humphrey became protector of England during the minority of this nephew. As Henry VI never married and therefore did not have an heir, Humphrey was the ‘heir presumptive’ (Harriss, 2004) to the throne.

After a less than distinguished career in the military and much engagement in conflict in matters of state, Humphrey was finally discredited by the actions of his wife, Eleanor Cobham, who was charged with ‘treasonable necromancy’ after consulting astrologers regarding the life expectancy of the king. Humphrey was himself arrested for treason in 1447, but died before being brought to trial. Due to his lack of favour with the king, his titles were extinguished and his lands returned to crown ownership.

Humphrey’s greatest successes were in his scholarly pursuits, and one of these involved the collection of classical texts. It was indeed fortunate that the majority of this collection, a total of 263 volumes received in two parts, in 1439 and 1444, was donated to Oxford University since the remainder of his collection had also been promised to Oxford, but was seized by the crown and redirected into the king’s foundation at Cambridge.

Sir Thomas Bodley

Sir Thomas Bodley was born in 1545 In Exeter, Devon and was the eldest son of John Bodley and his wife Joan. The family were exiled, first to Wesel and Frankfurt, and later to Geneva after John Bodley became embroiled in the Protest reform of the time.

Beginning his education under the supervision of a physician and schoolmaster whilst still in exile in Geneva, Bodley was tutored in Latin and Hebrew. The family returned to England after the death of Mary I, and Thomas continued his education, entering Magdalen College, Oxford in 1559, and graduating with a Bachelor of Arts in 1563. He was admitted as a fellow of Merton College in 1564. By 1565 Bodley had become Oxford’s first lecturer in Greek.

In 1576 Bodley left Oxford to pursue a diplomatic and political career, spending time in France, Germany and Italy before a short lived return to Merton College. His burgeoning political career had begun to take precedence over his scholarly pursuits, and he served Elizabeth I before being elected a member of parliament, and becoming involved in foreign affairs.

It was his marriage to Ann, daughter of Richard Cary and the widow of a wealthy fish merchant in 1586 which would provide the impetus for Bodley’s involvement with the library at Oxford. Ann inherited a substantial sum on the death of her father, and it is these funds that Bodley was later to use to reinstate Duke Humphrey’s library at Oxford University.

Bodley was becoming disillusioned with the progress of state affairs, and although there were movements towards him taking higher offices, he declined in favour of pursuing his library restoration project. Writing to the vice-chancellor of the University of the time, Thomas Singleton, Bodley offered to fund the restoration, and to pursue donations of books from his acquaintances.

This offer was accepted, and with construction completed and a collection of books donated from several sources, the library opened its doors, under the supervision of Thomas James, the first librarian. Bodley’s involvement in the library did not stop there. He continued to pursue donations, and, critically evaluated others, leading to their rejection of material as unsuitable for the calibre of library that Oxford was to become. In 1610, Bodley negotiated the agreement with the Stationer’s Company which is the precursor to the modern legal deposit provisions.

Bodley died in 1613, leaving the majority of his estate to the University.

Thomas James

Thomas James was born in approximately 1572/3 in Newport, Isle of Wight, and is believed to be the youngest child of Richard James and Jane Overnone. He entered Winchester College in 1586, at the age of 13, and later entered New College, Oxford as a probationer on 30 June, 1591. James matriculated on 28 January 1592; was elected fellow on 30 June 1593; graduated with a Bachelor of Arts on 3 May 1595; and finally a Master of Arts on 5 February 1599.

James was a prolific writer, commentator and translator of foreign texts, publishing many texts throughout his career. Thomas Bodley chose James to be the Librarian at his reinstated library, a request to which James agreed, and this appointment was confirmed by the library on 13 April 1602.

James married Ann Underhill on 18 October, 1602 following the acquiescence of Thomas Bodley, who had previously instructed James that he was never to marry. James was forced to resign his position at New College as a result, and there were also financial ramifications. The couple later produced seven children.

The library opened on 8 November, 1602 with much fanfare, and James gave an address at the opening in the absence of Thomas Bodley.

James was responsible for producing the first printed catalogue of the Bodleian Library’s holdings, which was paid for by Bodley, and published in 1605. The agreement with the Stationer’s Company of London, specifying that a copy of every book that the company printed would be deposited with the library had been initiated by James. In 1612-13, James produced a new catalogue, this time in alphabetical order by author or title. Lack of funds meant that this catalogue was written in James’ hand and never printed.

Thomas James was appointed rector of the parish of Little Mongeham in Kent in 1617, and resigned as librarian of the Bodleian Library in 1620.

The Bodleian's Librarians

In all, and including Thomas James, 24 librarians have served the Bodleian Library:

1. Thomas James 1599-1620
2. John Rouse 1620-1652
3. Thomas Barlow 1652-1660
4. Thomas Lockey 1660-1665
5. Thomas Hyde 1665-1701
6. John Hudson 1701-1719
7. John Bowles 1719-1729
8. Robert Fysher 1729-1747
9. Humphrey Owen 1747-1768
10. John Price 1768-1813
11. Bulkeley Bundinel 1813-1860
12. Henry Octavius Coxe 1860-1881
13. Edward Williams Byron Nicholson 1882-1912
14. Falconer Madan 1912-1919
15. Sir Arthur Ernest Cowley 1919-1931
16. Sir (Herbert Henry) Edmund Craster 1931-1945
17. Harry R. Creswick 1945-1947
18. (John) Nowell Linton Myres 1948-1965
19. Robert Shakleton 1966-1979
20. (Erik) Richard (Sidney) Fifoot 1979-1981
21. John W. Joliffe 1982-1985
22. David G. Vaisey 1986-1996
23. Reginald P. Carr 1997-2006
24. Sarah E. Thomas 2007-

The Buildings - Image Gallery

Clockwise from top left: Duke Humphreys library, Convocation (Congregation) House, Schools Quadrangle, The Old Bodleian Library (rear view), The Old Bodleian (front view); The Radcliffe Camera.


Building the collections

1602 Thomas Bodley and other donors provided approximately 2500 books to the refurbished library.

1610 An agreement is made with the Stationer’s Company in London to provide a copy of every book printed to the Bodleian Library. This agreement was the precursor to the modern day legal deposit legislation. The Bodleian Library is still a legal deposit institution to this day.

1634 John Selden makes a donation of 8000 books to the library.

1629-1635 The library begins to receive gifts of manuscripts:

1629 3rd Earl of Pembroke
1634 Sir Kenelm Digby
1635- William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury

1700-1703 The growth of the collection slows, and in this time period no books at all are purchased.

1755 The library receives a gift of a part of the ‘Arundel Marbles’ from the Countess of Pomfret.

1834 A donation of 18,000 printed books, including 300 incunabula – books printed before 1500 - and 393 manuscripts is bequeathed to the library from Francis Douce.

1842 The legal deposit provisions pioneered in 1610 had been refined. Therefore, the library concentrated its efforts on collecting manuscripts and foreign books.

1849 The library’s collections had grown to approximately 220,000 books and 21,000 manuscripts.

1914 The Bodleian Library’s collection of books reaches 1,000,000 items.

(from History of the Bodleian Library)

The Bodleian Library today

Today, the Bodleian Libraries are run under the capable management of not only its first foreign librarian, but also its first woman librarian, Sarah Thomas.

Whilst the library is heavily involved in digitisation projects, it still caters to 65,000 registered readers, and acquires a staggering 300.000 items per year, helped along of course by the library's status under legal deposit.

The New Bodleian Library is being renovated, and when this improved facility opens, it will open with a new name, the Weston Library in recognition of what Sarah Thomas describes in her 'From Bodley's Librarian' newsletter as "...the largest donation received to date in the Bodleian's history..."(June 2010).

References

Books

Burnett, C 1997, The introduction of Arabic learning in England, The British Library, London, p.17

Prest, J. et. al. 1993, The Illustrated History of Oxford University, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Southern, R. W. 1984, From schools to university, in The History of the University of Oxford, Vol. 1, Clarendon Press, Oxford.

Images

Bodleian Library n.d., viewed 22/5/2010, http://i890.photobucket.com/albums/ac102/perry-oxford/Christ%20Church%20and%20Harry%20Potter/BodleianLibrary2.jpg>

Convocation House in Bodleian Library n.d., viewed 22/5/2010, <http://i21.photobucket.com/albums/b298/joyceinuk/Oxford%20Trip/IMG_0243.jpg>

Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester c. 15th century, viewed 17/6/2010,
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Outside of the Bodleian Library n.d., viewed 22/5/2010, http://media.photobucket.com/image/bodleian%20library/perry-oxford/Bodleian%20Library/BodleianLibrary1.jpg?o=10

Radcliffe Camera Reading Room of the Bodleian Library, Oxford University n.d., viewed 22/5/2010,<http://i120.photobucket.com/albums/o194/usfjali/RadcliffeCameraReadingRoomBodlei-1.jpg>

Thomas Bodley, the founder of the Bodleian Library of Oxford n.d., viewed 10/6/2010, <>

Websites

History of the Bodleian 2010, Bodleian Libraries, Oxford, viewed 21/4/2010, http://www.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/bodley/about/history

University Church of St Mary’s 2009, University Church, viewed 22/4/2009, http://www.university-church.ox.ac.uk/history.html

Jokinen, A 2010, Hundred Years’ War: Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester (1391-1447) [Humphrey Plantagenet, ‘Good Duke Humphrey’], Luminarium: Encyclopaedia Project, viewed 22/5/2010, < http://www.luminarium.org/encyclopedia/gloucester.htm

British History Timeline n.d., in British History in Depth, BBC, viewed 10/6/2010,
<>

Bodley’s Librarians, Bodleian Libraries, viewed 10/6/2010,
<>

Database articles

Cannon, J. (ed.) 2009, Gloucester, Humphrey, 1st duke of, in A Dictionary of British History, Oxford University Press,. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. State Library of Victoria., viewed 16 March 2010 http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t43.e1504

Clennell, W. H. 2004, Bodley, Sir Thomas (1545-1613) (online), in Oxford Dictionary of National Bibliography, Oxford University Press, viewed 16/3/2010, <>

Fleming, P. 2004, Cobham family (online), in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, viewed 18/6/2010, <>

Haines, M. R. 2004, Thomas Cobham (online), in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, viewed 10/6/2010, http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/5745

Harriss, G.L. 2004, Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester(1390-1447) (online), in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, viewed 18/6/2010, http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/14155

Roberts, R Julian 2004, Thomas James (online), in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, viewed 10/6/2010, <>

Newsletters

James, S.E. 2010, Transforming the New Bodleian, in The Bodley's Librarian, Bodleian Libraries, viewed 18/6/2010, <http://www.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/67051/FINAL-Sarah-Thomas-newsletter-May-09.pdf>